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A
Fallacy Recognition Handbook
Provided
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Logic
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Ombudsman rhetoric and disingenuous sophistry.
This
index has been added to by Tony Winter to enable easy location of
each fallacy
Ad
Hominem
Ad
Hominem Tu Quoque
Appeal
to the Consequences of a Belief
Appeal
to Authority
Non-Fallacious
Appeals to Authority
Appeal
to Belief
Appeal
to Common Practice
Appeal
to Emotion
Appeal
to Popularity
Appeal
to Emotion
Appeal
to Fear
Appeal
to Flattery
Appeal
to Novelty
Appeal
to Pity
Appeal
to Popularity
Appeal
to Ridicule
Appeal
to Spite
Appeal
to Tradition
Begging
the Question
Biased
Generalization
Burden
of Proof
Circumstantial
Ad Hominem
Fallacy
of Composition
Confusing
Cause and Effect
False
Dilemma
Gambler’s
Fallacy
Genetic
Fallacy
Guilt
by Association
Hasty
Generalization
Ignoring
a Common Cause
Middle
Ground
Misleading
Vividness
Peer
Pressure
Personal
Attack
Poisoning
the Well
Post
Hoc
Questionable
Cause
Red
Herring
Relativist
Fallacy
Slippery
Slope
Special
Pleading
The
Principle of Relevant Difference
Spotlight
Straw
Man
Two
Wrongs Make a Right
Who
is to Say?
Beyond
this line by kind courtesy of:
Dr.
Michael C. LaBossiere
A Fallacy Recognition Handbook
Dr. Michael C.
LaBossiere
ontologist@aol.com
Revised
3/27/2004
Legal Information
This book is copyright 2002 by Dr.
Michael C. LaBossiere. It may be freely distributed for personal
or educational use provided that it is not modified and no fee
above the normal cost of distribution is charged for it. Visit my
web site at www.opifex.cnchost.com.
Fallacies and Arguments
In order to understand what a
fallacy is, one must understand what an argument is. Very briefly
an argument consists of one or more premises and one conclusion.
A premise is a statement (a sentence that is either true or
false) that is offered in support of the claim being made, which
is the conclusion (which is also a sentence that is either true
or false).
There are two main types of arguments: deductive
and inductive. A deductive argument is an argument such that the
premises provide (or appear to provide) complete support for the
conclusion. An inductive argument is an argument such that the
premises provide (or appear to provide) some degree of support
(but less than complete support) for the conclusion. If the
premises actually provide the required degree of support for the
conclusion, then the argument is a good one. A good deductive
argument is known as a valid argument and is such that if all its
premises are true, then its conclusion must be true. If all the
argument is valid and actually has all true premises, then it is
known as a sound argument. If it is invalid or has one or more
false premises, it will be unsound. A good inductive argument is
known as a strong (or “cogent”) inductive argument.
It is such that if the premises are true, the conclusion is
likely to be true.
A fallacy is, very generally, an error in
reasoning. This differs from a factual error, which is simply
being wrong about the facts. To be more specific, a fallacy is an
“argument” in which the premises given for the
conclusion do not provide the needed degree of support. A
deductive fallacy is a deductive argument that is invalid (it is
such that it could have all true premises and still have a false
conclusion). An inductive fallacy is less formal than a deductive
fallacy. They are simply “arguments” which appear to
be inductive arguments, but the premises do not provided enough
support for the conclusion. In such cases, even if the premises
were true, the conclusion would not be more likely to be true.
Example of a Deductive Argument
Premise 1: If Bill is a cat, then Bill is a mammal.
Premise
2: Bill is a cat.
Conclusion: Bill is a mammal.
Example of an Inductive Argument
Premise 1: Most American cats are domestic house cats.
Premise
2: Bill is an American cat.
Conclusion: Bill is domestic house
cat.
Example of a Factual Error
Columbus is the capital of the United States.
Example of a Deductive Fallacy
Premise 1: If Portland is the capital of Maine, then it is in
Maine.
Premise 2: Portland is in Maine.
Conclusion:
Portland is the capital of Maine.
(Portland is in Maine, but
Augusta is the capital. Portland is the largest city in Maine,
though.)
Example of an Inductive Fallacy
Premise 1: Having just arrived in Ohio, I saw a white
squirrel.
Conclusion: All Ohio squirrels are white.
(While
there are many, many squirrels in Ohio, the white ones are very
rare).
Fallacies
Ad
Hominem
Also Known as: Ad Hominem Abusive, Personal
Attack
Description:
Translated from Latin to English, “ad
Hominem” means “against the man” or “against
the person.”
An ad Hominem is a general category of
fallacies in which a claim or argument is rejected on the basis
of some irrelevant fact about the author of or the person
presenting the claim or argument. Typically, this fallacy
involves two steps. First, an attack against the character of
person making the claim, her circumstances, or her actions is
made (or the character, circumstances, or actions of the person
reporting the claim). Second, this attack is taken to be evidence
against the claim or argument the person in question is making
(or presenting). This type of “argument” has the
following form:
1. Person A makes claim X.
2. Person B makes an attack on
person A.
3. Therefore A’s claim is false.
The reason why an ad Hominem (of any kind) is a fallacy is
that the character, circumstances, or actions of a person do not
(in most cases) have a bearing on the truth or falsity of the
claim being made (or the quality of the argument being made).
Example#1:
Bill: “I believe that abortion is morally
wrong.”
Dave: “Of course you would say that,
you’re a priest.”
Bill: “What about the
arguments I gave to support my position?”
Dave: “Those
don’t count. Like I said, you’re a priest, so you
have to say that abortion is wrong. Further, you are just a
lackey to the Pope, so I can’t believe what you say.”
Example#2:
John: “Sally was saying that people
shouldn’t hunt animals or kill them for food or clothing.
She also…”
Wanda: “Well, Sally is a sissy
crybaby who loves animals way too much.”
John:
“So?”
Wanda: “That means she is wrong about
that animal stuff. Also, if we weren’t supposed to eat ‘em,
they wouldn’t be made of meat.”
Ad
Hominem Tu Quoque
Also Known as: “You Too
Fallacy”
Description:
This fallacy is committed when
it is concluded that a person’s claim is false because 1)
it is inconsistent with something else a person has said or 2)
what a person says is inconsistent with her actions. This type of
“argument” has the following form:
1. Person A makes claim X.
2. Person B asserts that A’s
actions or past claims are inconsistent with the truth of claim
X.
3. Therefore X is false.
The fact that a person makes inconsistent claims does not make
any particular claim he makes false (although of any pair of
inconsistent claims only one can be true—but both can be
false). Also, the fact that a person’s claims are not
consistent with his actions might indicate that the person is a
hypocrite but this does not prove his claims are false.
Example #1:
Bill: “Smoking is very unhealthy and
leads to all sorts of problems. So take my advice and never
start.”
Jill: “Well, I certainly don’t want
to get cancer.”
Bill: “I’m going to get a
smoke. Want to join me Dave?”
Jill: “Well, I guess
smoking can’t be that bad. After all, Bill smokes.”
Example #2:
Jill: “I think the gun control bill
shouldn’t be supported because it won’t be effective
and will waste money.”
Bill: “Well, just last
month you supported the bill. So I guess you’re wrong now.”
Example #3:
Peter: “Based on the arguments I have
presented, it is evident that it is morally wrong to use animals
for food or clothing.”
Bill: “But you are wearing
a leather jacket and you have a roast beef sandwich in your hand!
How can you say that using animals for food and clothing is
wrong!”
Appeal to the
Consequences of a Belief
Description:
The Appeal to
the Consequences of a Belief is a fallacy that comes in the
following patterns:
#1: X is true because if people did not accept X as being
true, then there would be negative consequences.
#2: X is false because if people did not accept X as being
false, then there would be negative consequences.
#3: X is true because accepting that X is true has positive
consequences.
#4: X is false because accepting that X is false has positive
consequences.
#5: I wish that X were true, therefore X is true. This is
known as Wishful Thinking.
#6: I wish that X were false, therefore X is false. This is
known as Wishful Thinking.
This line of “reasoning” is fallacious because the
consequences of a belief have no bearing on whether the belief is
true or false. For example, if someone were to say “If
sixteen-headed purple unicorns don’t exist, then I would be
miserable, so they must exist”, it would be clear that this
would not be a good line of reasoning. It is important to note
that the consequences in question are the consequences that stem
from the belief. It is important to distinguish between a
rational reason to believe (RRB) (evidence) and a prudential
reason to believe (PRB) (motivation). A RRB is evidence that
objectively and logically supports the claim. A PRB is a reason
to accept the belief because of some external factor (such as
fear, a threat, or a benefit or harm that may stem from the
belief) that is relevant to what a person values but is not
relevant to the truth or falsity of the claim.
The nature of
the fallacy is especially clear in the case of Wishful thinking.
Obviously, merely wishing that something is true does not make it
true. This fallacy differs from the Appeal to Belief fallacy in
that the Appeal to Belief involves taking a claim that most
people believe that X is true to be evidence for X being true.
Example #1:
God must exist! If God did not exist, then all
basis for morality would be lost and the world would be a
horrible place!
Example #2:
It can never happen to me. If I believed it
could, I could never sleep soundly at night.
Example #3:
I don’t think that there will be a
nuclear war. If I believed that, I wouldn’t be able to get
up in the morning. I mean, how depressing.
Example #4:
I acknowledge that I have no argument for the
existence of God. However, I have a great desire for God to exist
and for there to be an afterlife. Therefore I accept that God
exists.
Appeal to Authority
Also Known as: Fallacious Appeal to Authority, Misuse
of Authority, Irrelevant Authority, Questionable Authority,
Inappropriate Authority, Ad Verecundiam
Description:
An
Appeal to Authority is a fallacy with the following form:
1) Person A is (claimed to be) an authority on subject S.
2)
Person A makes claim C about subject S.
3) Therefore, C is
true.
This fallacy is committed when the person in question is not a
legitimate authority on the subject. More formally, if person A
is not qualified to make reliable claims in subject S, then the
argument will be fallacious.
This sort of reasoning is
fallacious when the person in question is not an expert. In such
cases the reasoning is flawed because the fact that an
unqualified person makes a claim does not provide any
justification for the claim. The claim could be true, but the
fact that an unqualified person made the claim does not provide
any rational reason to accept the claim as true.
When a person
falls prey to this fallacy, they are accepting a claim as true
without there being adequate evidence to do so. More
specifically, the person is accepting the claim because they
erroneously believe that the person making the claim is a
legitimate expert and hence that the claim is reasonable to
accept. Since people have a tendency to believe authorities (and
there are, in fact, good reasons to accept some claims made by
authorities) this fallacy is a fairly common one.
Since this
sort of reasoning is fallacious only when the person is not a
legitimate authority in a particular context, it is necessary to
provide some acceptable standards of assessment. The following
standards are widely accepted:
1. The person has sufficient expertise in the subject matter
in question.
Claims made by a person who lacks the needed
degree of expertise to make a reliable claim will, obviously, not
be well supported. In contrast, claims made by a person with the
needed degree of expertise will be supported by the person’s
reliability in the area.
Determining whether or not a person
has the needed degree of expertise can often be very difficult.
In academic fields (such as philosophy, engineering, history,
etc.), the person’s formal education, academic performance,
publications, membership in professional societies, papers
presented, awards won and so forth can all be reliable indicators
of expertise. Outside of academic fields, other standards will
apply. For example, having sufficient expertise to make a
reliable claim about how to tie a shoe lace only requires the
ability to tie the shoe lace and impart that information to
others. It should be noted that being an expert does not always
require having a university degree. Many people have high degrees
of expertise in sophisticated subjects without having ever
attended a university. Further, it should not be simply assumed
that a person with a degree is an expert.
Of course, what is
required to be an expert is often a matter of great debate. For
example, some people have (and do) claim expertise in certain
(even all) areas because of a divine inspiration or a special
gift. The followers of such people accept such credentials as
establishing the person’s expertise while others often see
these self-proclaimed experts as deluded or even as charlatans.
In other situations, people debate over what sort of education
and experience is needed to be an expert. Thus, what one person
may take to be a fallacious appeal another person might take to
be a well supported line of reasoning. Fortunately, many cases do
not involve such debate.
2. The claim being made by the person is within her area(s) of
expertise.
If a person makes a claim about some subject
outside of his area(s) of expertise, then the person is not an
expert in that context. Hence, the claim in question is not
backed by the required degree of expertise and is not
reliable.
It is very important to remember that because of the
vast scope of human knowledge and skill it is simply not possible
for one person to be an expert on everything. Hence, experts will
only be true experts in respect to certain subject areas. In most
other areas they will have little or no expertise. Thus, it is
important to determine what subject area a claim falls under.
It
is also very important to note that expertise in one area does
not automatically confer expertise in another. For example, being
an expert physicist does not automatically make a person an
expert on morality or politics. Unfortunately, this is often
overlooked or intentionally ignored. In fact, a great deal of
advertising rests on a violation of this condition. As anyone who
watches television knows, it is extremely common to get famous
actors and sports heroes to endorse products that they are not
qualified to assess. For example, a person may be a great actor,
but that does not automatically make him an expert on cars or
shaving or underwear or diets or politics.
3. There is an adequate degree of agreement among the other
experts in the subject in question.
If there is a significant
amount of legitimate dispute among the experts within a subject,
then it will fallacious to make an Appeal to Authority using the
disputing experts. This is because for almost any claim being
made and “supported” by one expert there will be a
counterclaim that is made and “supported” by another
expert. In such cases an Appeal to Authority would tend to be
futile. In such cases, the dispute has to be settled by
consideration of the actual issues under dispute. Since either
side in such a dispute can invoke experts, the dispute cannot be
rationally settled by Appeals to Authority.
There are many
fields in which there is a significant amount of legitimate
dispute. Economics is a good example of such a disputed field.
Anyone who is familiar with economics knows that there are many
plausible theories that are incompatible with one another.
Because of this, one expert economist could sincerely claim that
the deficit is the key factor while another equally qualified
individual could assert the exact opposite. Another area where
dispute is very common (and well known) is in the area of
psychology and psychiatry. As has been demonstrated in various
trials, it is possible to find one expert that will assert that
an individual is insane and not competent to stand trial and to
find another equally qualified expert who will testify, under
oath, that the same individual is both sane and competent to
stand trial. Obviously, one cannot rely on an Appeal to Authority
in such a situation without making a fallacious argument. Such an
argument would be fallacious since the evidence would not warrant
accepting the conclusion.
It is important to keep in mind that
no field has complete agreement, so some degree of dispute is
acceptable. How much is acceptable is, of course, a matter of
serious debate. It is also important to keep in mind that even a
field with a great deal of internal dispute might contain areas
of significant agreement. In such cases, an Appeal to Authority
could be legitimate.
4. The person in question is not significantly biased.
If
an expert is significantly biased then the claims he makes within
his are of bias will be less reliable. Since a biased expert will
not be reliable, an Argument from Authority based on a biased
expert will be fallacious. This is because the evidence will not
justify accepting the claim.
Experts, being people, are
vulnerable to biases and prejudices. If there is evidence that a
person is biased in some manner that would affect the reliability
of her claims, then an Argument from Authority based on that
person is likely to be fallacious. Even if the claim is actually
true, the fact that the expert is biased weakens the argument.
This is because there would be reason to believe that the expert
might not be making the claim because he has carefully considered
it using his expertise. Rather, there would be reason to believe
that the claim is being made because of the expert’s bias
or prejudice.
It is important to remember that no person is
completely objective. At the very least, a person will be
favorable towards her own views (otherwise she would probably not
hold them). Because of this, some degree of bias must be
accepted, provided that the bias is not significant. What counts
as a significant degree of bias is open to dispute and can vary a
great deal from case to case. For example, many people would
probably suspect that doctors who were paid by tobacco companies
to research the effects of smoking would be biased while other
people might believe (or claim) that they would be able to remain
objective.
5. The area of expertise is a legitimate area or
discipline.
Certain areas in which a person may claim
expertise may have no legitimacy or validity as areas of
knowledge or study. Obviously, claims made in such areas will not
be very reliable.
What counts as a legitimate area of
expertise is sometimes difficult to determine. However, there are
cases which are fairly clear cut. For example, if a person
claimed to be an expert at something he called “chromabullet
therapy” and asserted that firing painted rifle bullets at
a person would cure cancer it would not be very reasonable to
accept his claim based on his “expertise.” After all,
his expertise is in an area which is devoid of legitimate
content. The general idea is that to be a legitimate expert a
person must have mastery over a real field or area of
knowledge.
As noted above, determining the legitimacy of a
field can often be difficult. In European history, various
scientists had to struggle with the Church and established
traditions to establish the validity of their disciplines. For
example, experts on evolution faced an uphill battle in getting
the legitimacy of their area accepted.
A modern example
involves psychic phenomenon. Some people claim that they are
certified “master psychics” and that they are
actually experts in the field. Other people contend that their
claims of being certified “master psychics” are
simply absurd since there is no real content to such an area of
expertise. If these people are right, then anyone who accepts the
claims of these “master psychics” as true are victims
of a fallacious appeal to authority.
6. The authority in question must be identified.
A common
variation of the typical Appeal to Authority fallacy is an Appeal
to an Unnamed Authority. This fallacy is Also Known as an Appeal
to an Unidentified Authority.
This fallacy is committed when a
person asserts that a claim is true because an expert or
authority makes the claim and the person does not actually
identify the expert. Since the expert is not named or identified,
there is no way to tell if the person is actually an expert.
Unless the person is identified and has his expertise
established, there is no reason to accept the claim.
This sort
of reasoning is not unusual. Typically, the person making the
argument will say things like “I have a book that says…”
, or “they say…”, or “the experts say…”,
or “scientists believe that…”, or “I
read in the paper..” or “I saw on TV…”
or some similar statement. in such cases the person is often
hoping that the listener(s) will simply accept the unidentified
source as a legitimate authority and believe the claim being
made. If a person accepts the claim simply because they accept
the unidentified source as an expert (without good reason to do
so), he has fallen prey to this fallacy.
Non-Fallacious Appeals
to Authority
As suggested above, not all Appeals to
Authority are fallacious. This is fortunate since people have to
rely on experts. This is because no one person can be an expert
on everything and people do not have the time or ability to
investigate every single claim themselves.
In many cases,
Arguments from Authority will be good arguments. For example,
when a person goes to a skilled doctor and the doctor tells him
that he has a cold, then the patient has good reason to accept
the doctor’s conclusion. As another example, if a person’s
computer is acting odd and his friend, who is a computer expert,
tells him it is probably his hard drive then he has good reason
to believe her.
What distinguishes a fallacious Appeal to
Authority from a good Appeal to Authority is that the argument
meets the six conditions discussed above.
In a good Appeal to
Authority, there is reason to believe the claim because the
expert says the claim is true. This is because a person who is a
legitimate expert is more likely to be right than wrong when
making considered claims within her area of expertise. In a
sense, the claim is being accepted because it is reasonable to
believe that the expert has tested the claim and found it to be
reliable. So, if the expert has found it to be reliable, then it
is reasonable to accept it as being true. Thus, the listener is
accepting a claim based on the testimony of the expert.
It
should be noted that even a good Appeal to Authority is not an
exceptionally strong argument. After all, in such cases a claim
is being accepted as true simply because a person is asserting
that it is true. The person may be an expert, but her expertise
does not really bear on the truth of the claim. This is because
the expertise of a person does not actually determine whether the
claim is true or false. Hence, arguments that deal directly with
evidence relating to the claim itself will tend to be stronger.
Example #1:
Bill and Jane are arguing about the morality of
abortion:
Bill: “I believe that abortion is morally acceptable.
After all, a woman should have a right to her own body.”
Jane:
‘I disagree completely. Dr. Johan Skarn says that abortion
is always morally wrong, regardless of the situation. He has to
be right, after all, he is a respected expert in his
field.”
Bill: “I’ve never heard of Dr.
Skarn. Who is he?”
Jane: “He’s the guy that
won the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on cold
fusion.”
Bill: “I see. Does he have any expertise
in morality or ethics?”
Jane: “I don’t know.
But he’s a world famous expert, so I believe him.”
Example #2:
Dave and Kintaro are arguing about Stalin’s
reign in the Soviet Union. Dave has been arguing that Stalin was
a great leader while Kintaro disagrees with him.
Kintaro: “I don’t see how you can consider Stalin
to be a great leader. He killed millions of his own people, he
crippled the Soviet economy, kept most of the people in fear and
laid the foundations for the violence that is occurring in much
of Eastern Europe.”
Dave: “Yeah, well you say
that. However, I have a book at home that says that Stalin was
acting in the best interest of the people. The millions that were
killed were vicious enemies of the state and they had to be
killed to protect the rest of the peaceful citizens. This book
lays it all out, so it has to be true.”
Example #3:
I’m not a doctor, but I play one on the
hit series “Bimbos and Studmuffins in the OR.” You
can take it from me that when you need a fast acting, effective
and safe pain killer there is nothing better than MorphiDope
2000. That is my considered medical opinion.
Example #4:
Siphwe and Sasha are having a conversation:
Sasha: “I played the lottery today and I know I am going
to win something.”
Siphwe: “What did you do, rig
the outcome?”
Sasha: “No, silly. I called my Super
Psychic Buddy at the 1-900-MindPower number. After consulting his
magic Californian Tarot deck, he told me my lucky
numbers.”
Siphwe: “And you believed him?”
Sasha:
“Certainly, he is a certified Californian Master-Mind
Psychic. That is why I believe what he has to say. I mean, like,
who else would know what my lucky numbers are?”
Appeal to
Belief
Description:
Appeal to Belief is a fallacy
that has this general pattern:
1) Most people believe that a claim, X, is true.
2)
Therefore X is true.
This line of “reasoning” is fallacious because the
fact that many people believe a claim does not, in general, serve
as evidence that the claim is true.
There are, however, some
cases when the fact that many people accept a claim as true is an
indication that it is true. For example, while you are visiting
Maine, you are told by several people that they believe that
people older than 16 need to buy a fishing license in order to
fish. Barring reasons to doubt these people, their statements
give you reason to believe that anyone over 16 will need to buy a
fishing license.
There are also cases in which what people
believe actually determines the truth of a claim. For example,
the truth of claims about manners and proper behavior might
simply depend on what people believe to be good manners and
proper behavior. Another example is the case of community
standards, which are often taken to be the standards that most
people accept. In some cases, what violates certain community
standards is taken to be obscene. In such cases, for the claim “x
is obscene” to be true is for most people in that community
to believe that x is obscene. In such cases it is still prudent
to question the justification of the individual beliefs.
Example #1:
At one time, most people in Europe believed
that the earth was the center of the solar system (at least most
of those who had beliefs about such things). However, this belief
turned out to be false.
Example #2:
God must exist. After all, I just saw a poll
that says 85% of all Americans believe in God.
Example #3:
Of course there is nothing wrong with drinking.
Ask anyone, he’ll tell you that he thinks drinking is just
fine.
Appeal to Common
Practice
Description:
The Appeal to Common Practice
is a fallacy with the following structure:
1) X is a common action.
2) Therefore X is
correct/moral/justified/reasonable, etc.
The basic idea behind the fallacy is that the fact that most
people do X is used as “evidence” to support the
action or practice. It is a fallacy because the mere fact that
most people do something does not make it correct, moral,
justified, or reasonable.
An appeal to fair play, which might
seem to be an appeal to common practice, need not be a fallacy.
For example, a woman working in an office might say “the
men who do the same job as me get paid more than I do, so it
would be right for me to get paid the same as them.” This
would not be a fallacy as long as there was no relevant
difference between her and the men (in terms of ability,
experience, hours worked, etc.). More formally:
1) It is common practice to treat people of type Y in manner X
and to treat people of type Z in a different manner.
2) There
is no relevant difference between people of type Y and type Z.
3)
Therefore people of type Z should be treated in manner X, too.
This argument rests heavily on the principle of relevant
difference. On this principle two people, A and B, can only be
treated differently if and only if there is a relevant difference
between them. For example, it would be fine for me to give a
better grade to A than B if A did better work than B. However, it
would be wrong of me to give A a better grade than B simply
because A has red hair and B has blonde hair.
There might be
some cases in which the fact that most people accept X as moral
entails that X is moral. For example, one view of morality is
that morality is relative to the practices of a culture, time,
person, etc. If what is moral is determined by what is commonly
practiced, then this argument:
1) Most people do X.
2) Therefore X is morally correct.
would not be a fallacy. This would however entail some odd
results. For example, imagine that there are only 100 people on
earth. 60 of them do not steal or cheat and 40 do. At this time,
stealing and cheating would be wrong. The next day, a natural
disaster kills 30 of the 60 people who do not cheat or steal. Now
it is morally correct to cheat and steal. Thus, it would be
possible to change the moral order of the world to one’s
view simply by eliminating those who disagree.
Example #1:
Director Jones is in charge of running a state
waste management program. When it is found that the program is
rife with corruption, Jones says “This program has its
problems, but nothing goes on in this program that doesn’t
go on in all state programs.”
Example #2:
“Yeah, I know some people say that
cheating on tests is wrong. But we all know that everyone does
it, so it’s okay.”
Example #3:
“Sure, some people buy into that equality
crap. However, we know that everyone pays women less then men.
It’s okay, too. Since everyone does it, it can’t
really be wrong.”
Example #4:
“There is nothing wrong with requiring
multicultural classes, even at the expense of core subjects.
After all, all of the universities and colleges are pushing
multiculturalism.”
Appeal to
Emotion
Description:
An Appeal to Emotion is a
fallacy with the following structure:
1) Favorable emotions are associated with X.
2) Therefore,
X is true.
This fallacy is committed when someone manipulates peoples’
emotions in order to get them to accept a claim as being true.
More formally, this sort of “reasoning” involves the
substitution of various means of producing strong emotions in
place of evidence for a claim. If the favorable emotions
associated with X influence the person to accept X as true
because they “feel good about X,” then he has fallen
prey to the fallacy.
This sort of “reasoning” is
very common in politics and it serves as the basis for a large
portion of modern advertising. Most political speeches are aimed
at generating feelings in people so that these feelings will get
them to vote or act a certain way. In the case of advertising,
the commercials are aimed at evoking emotions that will influence
people to buy certain products. In most cases, such speeches and
commercials are notoriously free of real evidence.
This sort
of “reasoning” is quite evidently fallacious. It is
fallacious because using various tactics to incite emotions in
people does not serve as evidence for a claim. For example, if a
person were able to inspire in a person an incredible hatred of
the claim that 1+1 = 2 and then inspired the person to love the
claim that 1+1 =3, it would hardly follow that the claim that 1+1
= 3 would be adequately supported.
It should be noted that in
many cases it is not particularly obvious that the person
committing the fallacy is attempting to support a claim. In many
cases, the user of the fallacy will appear to be attempting to
move people to take an action, such as buying a product or
fighting in a war. However, it is possible to determine what sort
of claim the person is actually attempting to support. In such
cases one needs to ask “what sort of claim is this person
attempting to get people to accept and act on?” Determining
this claim (or claims) might take some work. However, in many
cases it will be quite evident. For example, if a political
leader is attempting to convince her followers to participate in
certain acts of violence by the use of a hate speech, then her
claim would be “you should participate in these acts of
violence.” In this case, the “evidence” would
be the hatred evoked in the followers. This hatred would serve to
make them favorable inclined towards the claim that they should
engage in the acts of violence. As another example, a beer
commercial might show happy, scantily clad men and women prancing
about a beach, guzzling beer. In this case the claim would be
“you should buy this beer.” The “evidence”
would be the excitement evoked by seeing the beautiful people
guzzling the beer.
This fallacy is actually an extremely
effective persuasive device. As many people have argued, peoples’
emotions often carry much more force than their reason. Logical
argumentation is often difficult and time consuming and it rarely
has the power to spurn people to action. It is the power of this
fallacy that explains its great popularity and wide usage.
However, it is still a fallacy.
In all fairness it must be
noted that the use of tactics to inspire emotions is an important
skill. Without an appeal to peoples’ emotions, it is often
difficult to get them to take action or to perform at their best.
For example, no good coach presents her team with syllogisms
before the big game. Instead she inspires them with emotional
terms and attempts to “fire” them up. There is
nothing inherently wrong with this. However, it is not any
acceptable form of argumentation. As long as one is able to
clearly distinguish between what inspires emotions and what
justifies a claim, one is unlikely to fall prey to this
fallacy.
As a final point, in many cases it will be difficult
to distinguish an Appeal to Emotion from some other fallacies and
in many cases multiple fallacies may be committed. For example,
many Ad Hominems will be very similar to Appeals to Emotion and,
in some cases, both fallacies will be committed. As an example, a
leader might attempt to invoke hatred of a person to inspire his
followers to accept that they should reject her claims. The same
attack could function as an Appeal to Emotion and a Personal
Attack. In the first case, the attack would be aimed at making
the followers feel very favorable about rejecting her claims. In
the second case, the attack would be aimed at making the
followers reject the person’s claims because of some
perceived (or imagined) defect in her character.
This fallacy
is related to the Appeal to Popularity fallacy. Despite the
differences between these two fallacies, they are both united by
the fact that they involve appeals to emotions. In both cases the
fallacies aim at getting people to accept claims based on how
they or others feel about the claims and not based on evidence
for the claims.
Another way to look at these two fallacies is as follows
Appeal to Popularity
1)
Most people approve of X.
2) So, I should approve of X,
too.
3) Since I approve of X, X must be true.
Appeal to Emotion
1)
I approve of X.
2) Therefore, X is true.
On this view, in an Appeal to Popularity the claim is accepted
because most people approve of the claim. In the case of an
Appeal to Emotion the claim is accepted because the individual
approves of the claim because of the emotion of approval he feels
in regards to the claim.
Example #1:
The new PowerTangerine computer gives you the
power you need. If you buy one, people will envy your power. They
will look up to you and wish they were just like you. You will
know the true joy of power. TangerinePower.
Example #2:
The new UltraSkinny diet will make you feel
great. No longer be troubled by your weight. Enjoy the admiring
stares of the opposite sex. Revel in your new freedom from fat.
You will know true happiness if you try our diet!
Example #3:
Bill goes to hear a politician speak. The
politician tells the crowd about the evils of the government and
the need to throw out the people who are currently in office.
After hearing the speech, Bill is full of hatred for the current
politicians. Because of this, he feels good about getting rid of
the old politicians and accepts that it is the right thing to do
because of how he feels.
Appeal to Fear
Also
Known as: Scare Tactics, Appeal to Force, Ad
Baculum
Description:
The Appeal to Fear is a fallacy with
the following pattern:
1) Y is presented (a claim that is intended to produce
fear).
2) Therefore claim X is true (a claim that is
generally, but need not be, related to Y in some manner).
This line of “reasoning” is fallacious because
creating fear in people does not constitute evidence for a
claim.
It is important to distinguish between a rational
reason to believe (RRB) (evidence) and a prudential reason to
believe(PRB) (motivation). A RRB is evidence that objectively and
logically supports the claim. A PRB is a reason to accept the
belief because of some external factor (such as fear, a threat,
or a benefit or harm that may stem from the belief) that is
relevant to what a person values but is not relevant to the truth
or falsity of the claim. For example, it might be prudent to not
fail the son of your department chairperson because you fear he
will make life tough for you. However, this does not provide
evidence for the claim that the son deserves to pass the class.
Example #1:
You know, Professor Smith, I really need to get
an A in this class. I’d like to stop by during your office
hours later to discuss my grade. I’ll be in your building
anyways, visting my father. He’s your dean, by the way.
I’ll see you later.
Example #2:
I don’t think a Red Ryder BB rifle would
make a good present for you. They are very dangerous and you’ll
put your eye out. Now, don’t you agree that you should
think of another gift idea?
Example #3:
You must believe that God exists. After all, if
you do not accept the existence of God, then you will face the
horrors of hell.
Example #4:
You shouldn’t say such things against
multiculturalism! If the chair heard what you were saying, you
would never receive tenure. So, you had just better learn to
accept that it is simply wrong to speak out against it.
Appeal to Flattery
Also
Known as: Apple Polishing, various “colorful”
expressions
Description:
An Appeal to Flattery is a fallacy
of the following form:
1) Person A is flattered by person B.
2) Person B makes
claim X.
3) Therefore X is true.
The basic idea behind this fallacy is that flattery is
presented in the place of evidence for accepting a claim. This
sort of “reasoning” is fallacious because flattery is
not, in fact, evidence for a claim. This is especially clear in a
case like this: “My Bill, that is a really nice tie. By the
way, it is quite clear that one plus one is equal to forty three.
Example #1:
Might I say that this is the best philosophy
class I’ve ever taken. By the way, about those two points I
need to get an A.
Example #2:
“That was a wonderful joke about AIDS
boss, and I agree with you that the damn liberals are wrecking
the country. Now about my raise…”
Example #3:
That was a singularly brilliant idea. I have
never seen such a clear and eloquent defense of Plato’s
position. If you do not mind, I’ll base my paper on it.
Provided that you allow me a little extra time past the deadline
to work on it.
Appeal to Novelty
Also
Known as: Appeal to the New, Newer is Better,
Novelty
Description:
Appeal to Novelty is a fallacy that
occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct
simply because it is new. This sort of “reasoning”
has the following form:
1. X is new.
2. Therefore X is correct or better.
This sort of “reasoning” is fallacious because the
novelty or newness of something does not automatically make it
correct or better than something older. This is made quite
obvious by the following example: Joe has proposed that 1+1
should now be equal to 3. When asked why people should accept
this, he says that he just came up with the idea. Since it is
newer than the idea that 1+1=2, it must be better.
This sort
of “reasoning” is appealing for many reasons. First,
“western culture” includes a very powerful commitment
to the notion that new things must be better than old things.
Second, the notion of progress (which seems to have come, in
part, from the notion of evolution) implies that newer things
will be superior to older things. Third, media advertising often
sends the message that newer must be better. Because of these
three factors (and others) people often accept that a new thing
(idea, product, concept, etc.) must be better because it is new.
Hence, Novelty is a somewhat common fallacy, especially in
advertising.
It should not be assumed that old things must be
better than new things (see the fallacy Appeal to Tradition) any
more than it should be assumed that new things are better than
old things. The age of a thing does not, in general, have any
bearing on its quality or correctness (in this
context).
Obviously, age does have a bearing in some contexts.
For example, if a person concluded that his day old milk was
better than his two-month old milk, he would not be committing an
Appeal to Novelty. This is because in such cases the newness of
the thing is relevant to its quality. Thus, the fallacy is
committed only when the newness is not, in and of itself,
relevant to the claim.
Example #1:
The Sadisike 900 pump-up glow shoe. It’s
better because it’s new.
Example #2:
James: “So, what is this new plan?”
Biff:
“Well, the latest thing in marketing techniques is the GK
method. It is the latest thing out of the think tank. It is so
new that the ink on the reports is still drying.”
James:
“Well, our old marketing method has been quite effective. I
don’t like the idea of jumping to a new method without a
good reason.”
Biff: “Well, we know that we have to
stay on the cutting edge. That means new ideas and new techniques
have to be used. The GK method is new, so it will do better than
that old, dusty method.”
Example #3:
Prof: “So you can see that a new and
better morality is sweeping the nation. No longer are people with
alternative lifestyles ashamed. No longer are people caught up in
the outmoded moralities of the past.”
Student: “Well,
what about the ideas of the great thinkers of the past? Don’t
they have some valid points?”
Prof: “A good
question. The answer is that they had some valid points in their
own, barbaric times. But those are old, moldy moralities from a
time long gone. Now is a time for new moralities. Progress and
all that, you know.”
Student: “So would you say
that the new moralities are better because they are newer?”
Prof:
“Exactly. Just as the dinosaurs died off to make way for
new animals, the old ideas have to give way for the new ones. And
just as humans are better than dinosaurs, the new ideas are
better than the old. So newer is literally better.”
Student:
“I see.”
Appeal to Pity
Also
Known as: Ad Misericordiam
Description:
An Appeal to Pity
is a fallacy in which a person substitutes a claim intended to
create pity for evidence in an argument. The form of the
“argument” is as follows:
1. P is presented, with the intent to create pity.
2.
Therefore claim C is true.
This line of “reasoning” is fallacious because
pity does not serve as evidence for a claim. This is extremely
clear in the following case: “You must accept that 1+1=46,
after all I’m dying…” While you may pity me
because I am dying, it would hardly make my claim true.
This
fallacy differs from the Appeal to the Consequences of a Belief
(ACB). In the ACB fallacy, a person is using the effects of a
belief as a substitute for evidence. In the Appeal to Pity, it is
the feelings of pity or sympathy that are substituted for
evidence.
It must be noted that there are cases in which
claims that actually serve as evidence also evoke a feeling of
pity. In such cases, the feeling of pity is still not evidence.
The following is an example of a case in which a claim evokes
pity and also serves as legitimate evidence:
Professor: “You missed the midterm, Bill.”
Bill:
“I know. I think you should let me take the
makeup.”
Professor: “Why?”
Bill: “I
was hit by a truck on the way to the midterm. Since I had to go
to the emergency room with a broken leg, I think I am entitled to
a makeup.”
Professor: “I’m sorry about the
leg, Bill. Of course you can make it up.”
The above example does not involve a fallacy. While the
professor does feel sorry for Bill, she is justified in accepting
Bill’s claim that he deserves a makeup. After all getting
run over by a truck would be a legitimate excuse for missing a
test.
Example #1:
Jill: “He’d be a terrible coach for
the team.”
Bill: “He had his heart set on the job,
and it would break if he didn’t get it.”
Jill: “I
guess he’ll do an adequate job.”
Example #2:
“I’m positive that my work will
meet your requirements. I really need the job since my
grandmother is sick”
Example #3:
“I should receive an ‘A’ in
this class. After all, if I don’t get an ‘A’ I
won’t get the fellowship that I want.”
Appeal to
Popularity
Description:
The Appeal to Popularity has
the following form:
1) Most people approve of X (have favorable emotions towards
X).
2) Therefore X is true.
The basic idea is that a claim is accepted as being true
simply because most people are favorably inclined towards the
claim. More formally, the fact that most people have favorable
emotions associated with the claim is substituted in place of
actual evidence for the claim. A person falls prey to this
fallacy if he accepts a claim as being true simply because most
other people approve of the claim.
It is clearly fallacious to
accept the approval of the majority as evidence for a claim. For
example, suppose that a skilled speaker managed to get most
people to absolutely love the claim that 1+1=3. It would still
not be rational to accept this claim simply because most people
approved of it. After all, mere approval is no substitute for a
mathematical proof. At one time people approved of claims such as
“the world is flat”, “humans cannot survive at
speeds greater than 25 miles per hour”, “the sun
revolves around the earth” but all these claims turned out
to be false.
This sort of “reasoning” is quite
common and can be quite an effective persuasive device. Since
most humans tend to conform with the views of the majority,
convincing a person that the majority approves of a claim is
often an effective way to get him to accept it. Advertisers often
use this tactic when they attempt to sell products by claiming
that everyone uses and loves their products. In such cases they
hope that people will accept the (purported) approval of others
as a good reason to buy the product.
This fallacy is vaguely
similar to such fallacies as Appeal to Belief and Appeal to
Common Practice. However, in the case of an Ad Populum the appeal
is to the fact that most people approve of a claim. In the case
of an Appeal to Belief, the appeal is to the fact that most
people believe a claim. In the case of an Appeal to Common
Practice, the appeal is to the fact that many people take the
action in question.
This fallacy is closely related to the
Appeal to Emotion fallacy, as discussed in the entry for that
fallacy.
Example #1:
My fellow Americans…there has been some
talk that the government is overstepping its bounds by allowing
police to enter people’s homes without the warrants
traditionally required by the Constitution. However, these are
dangerous times and dangerous times require appropriate actions.
I have in my office thousands of letters from people who let me
know, in no uncertain terms, that they heartily endorse the war
against terrorism in these United States. Because of this
overwhelming approval, it is evident that the police are doing
the right thing.
Example #2:
I read the other day that most people really
like the new gun control laws. I was sort of suspicious of them,
but I guess if most people like them, then they must be okay.
Example #3:
Jill and Jane have some concerns that the rules
their sorority has set are racist in character. Since Jill is a
decent person, she brings her concerns up in the next meeting.
The president of the sorority assures her that there is nothing
wrong with the rules, since the majority of the sisters like
them. Jane accepts this ruling but Jill decides to leave the
sorority.
Appeal to Ridicule
Also
Known as: Appeal to Mockery, The Horse Laugh.
Description:
The
Appeal to Ridicule is a fallacy in which ridicule or mockery is
substituted for evidence in an “argument.” This line
of “reasoning” has the following form:
1. X, which
is some form of ridicule is presented (typically directed at the
claim).
2. Therefore claim C is false.
This sort of “reasoning” is fallacious because
mocking a claim does not show that it is false. This is
especially clear in the following example: “1+1=2! That’s
the most ridiculous thing I have ever heard!”
It should
be noted that showing that a claim is ridiculous through the use
of legitimate methods (such as a non fallacious argument) can
make it reasonable to reject the claim. One form of this line of
reasoning is known as a “reductio ad absurdum”
(“reducing to absurdity”). In this sort of argument,
the idea is to show that a contradiction (a statement that must
be false) or an absurd result follows from a claim. For example:
“Bill claims that a member of a minority group cannot be a
racist. However, this is absurd. Think about this: white males
are a minority in the world. Given Bill’s claim, it would
follow that no white males could be racists. Hence, the Klan,
Nazis, and white supremacists are not racist
organizations.”
Since the claim that the Klan, Nazis,
and white supremacists are not racist organizations is clearly
absurd, it can be concluded that the claim that a member of a
minority cannot be a racist is false.
Example#1:
“Sure my worthy opponent claims that we
should lower tuition, but that is just laughable.”
Example#2:
“Equal rights for women? Yeah, I’ll
support that when they start paying for dinner and taking out the
trash! Hah hah! Fetch me another brewski, Mildred.”
Example#3:
“Those crazy conservatives! They think a
strong military is the key to peace! Such fools!”
Appeal to
Spite
Description:
The Appeal to Spite Fallacy is a
fallacy in which spite is substituted for evidence when an
“argument” is made against a claim. This line of
“reasoning” has the following form:
1. Claim X is
presented with the intent of generating spite.
2. Therefore
claim C is false (or true)
This sort of “reasoning” is fallacious because a
feeling of spite does not count as evidence for or against a
claim. This is quite clear in the following case: “Bill
claims that the earth revolves around the sun. But remember that
dirty trick he pulled on you last week. Now, doesn’t my
claim that the sun revolves around the earth make sense to
you?”
Of course, there are cases in which a claim that
evokes a feeling of spite or malice can serve as legitimate
evidence. However, it should be noted that the actual feelings of
malice or spite are not evidence. The following is an example of
such a situation:
Jill: “I think I’ll vote for Jane to be treasurer
of NOW.”
Vicki: “Remember the time that your purse
vanished at a meeting last year?”
Jill: “Yes.”
Vicki:
“Well, I just found out that she stole your purse and stole
some other stuff from people.”
Jill: “I’m
not voting for her!”
In this case, Jill has a good reason not to vote for Jane.
Since a treasurer should be honest, a known thief would be a bad
choice. As long as Jill concludes that she should vote against
Jane because she is a thief and not just out of spite, her
reasoning would not be fallacious.
Example #1:
Bill: “I think that Jane did a great job
this year. I’m going to nominate her for the award.”
Dave:
“Have you forgotten last year? Remember that she didn’t
nominate you last year.”
Bill: “You’re
right. I’m not going to nominate her.”
Example #2:
Jill: “I think Jane’s idea is a
really good one and will really save a lot of money for the
department.”
Bill: “Maybe. Remember how she showed
that your paper had a fatal flaw when you read it at the
convention last year…”
Jill: “I had just
about forgotten about that! I think I’ll go with your idea
instead.”
Appeal to
Tradition
Also Known as: Appeal to the Old, Old Ways
are Best, Fallacious Appeal to the Past, Appeal to
Age
Description:
Appeal to Tradition is a fallacy that
occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct
simply because it is older, traditional, or “always has
been done.” This sort of “reasoning” has the
following form:
1. X is old or traditional
2. Therefore X is correct or
better.
This sort of “reasoning” is fallacious because the
age of something does not automatically make it correct or better
than something newer. This is made quite obvious by the following
example: The theory that witches and demons cause disease is far
older than the theory that microorganism cause diseases.
Therefore, the theory about witches and demons must be true.
This
sort of “reasoning” is appealing for a variety of
reasons. First, people often prefer to stick with what is older
or traditional. This is a fairly common psychological
characteristic of people which may stem from the fact that people
feel more comfortable about what has been around longer. Second,
sticking with things that are older or traditional is often
easier than testing new things. Hence, people often prefer older
and traditional things out of laziness. Hence, Appeal to
Tradition is a somewhat common fallacy.
It should not be
assumed that new things must be better than old things (see the
fallacy Appeal to Novelty) any more than it should be assumed
that old things are better than new things. The age of thing does
not, in general, have any bearing on its quality or correctness
(in this context). In the case of tradition, assuming that
something is correct just because it is considered a tradition is
poor reasoning. For example, if the belief that 1+1 = 56 were a
tradition of a group of people it would hardly follow that it is
true.
Obviously, age does have a bearing in some contexts. For
example, if a person concluded that aged wine would be better
than brand new wine, he would not be committing an Appeal to
Tradition. This is because, in such cases the age of the thing is
relevant to its quality. Thus, the fallacy is committed only when
the age is not, in and of itself, relevant to the claim.
One
final issue that must be considered is the “test of time.”
In some cases people might be assuming that because something has
lasted as a tradition or has been around a long time that it is
true because it has “passed the test of time.” If a
person assumes that something must be correct or true simply
because it has persisted a long time, then he has committed an
Appeal to Tradition. After all, as history has shown people can
persist in accepting false claims for centuries.
However, if a
person argues that the claim or thing in question has
successfully stood up to challenges and tests for a long period
of time then they would not be committing a fallacy. In such
cases the claim would be backed by evidence. As an example, the
theory that matter is made of subatomic particles has survived
numerous tests and challenges over the years so there is a weight
of evidence in its favor. The claim is reasonable to accept
because of the weight of this evidence and not because the claim
is old. Thus, a claim’s surviving legitimate challenges and
passing valid tests for a long period of time can justify the
acceptance of a claim. But mere age or persistence does not
warrant accepting a claim.
Example #1:
Sure I believe in God. People have believed in
God for thousands of years so it seems clear that God must exist.
After all, why else would the belief last so long?
Example #2:
Gunthar is the father of Connan. They live on a
small island and in their culture women are treated as property
to be exchanged at will by men.
Connan: “You know father, when I was going to school in
the United States I saw that American women are not treated as
property. In fact, I read a book by this person named Mill in
which he argued for women’s rights.”
Gunthar: “So,
what is your point son?”
Connan: “Well, I think
that it might be wrong to trade my sisters for cattle. They are
human beings and should have a right to be masters of their own
fate.”
Gunthar: “What a strange and new-fangled
notion you picked up in America. That country must be even more
barbaric then I imagined. Now think about this son. We have been
trading women for cattle for as long as our people have lived on
this island. It is a tradition that goes back into the mists of
time. “
Connan: “But I still think there is
something wrong with it.”
Gunthar: “Nonsense my
boy. A tradition this old must be endorsed by the gods and must
be right. “
Example #3:
Of course this mode of government is the best.
We have had this government for over 200 years and no one has
talked about changing it in all that time. So, it has got to be
good.
Example #4:
A reporter is interviewing the head of a family
that has been involved with a feud with another family.
Reporter: “Mr. Hatfield, why are you still fighting it
out with the McCoys?”
Hatfield: “Well you see
young man, my father feuded with the McCoys and his father feuded
with them and so did my great grandfather.”
Reporter:
“But why? What started all this?”
Hatfield: “I
don’t rightly know. I’m sure it was the McCoys who
started it all, though.”
Reporter: “If you don’t
know why you’re fighting, why don’t you just
stop?”
Hatfield: “Stop? What are you crazy? This
feud has been going on for generations so I’m sure there is
a darn good reason why it started. So I aim to keep it going. It
has got to be the right thing to do. Hand me my shooting iron
boy, I see one of those McCoy skunks sneaking in the cornfield.”
Begging the
Question
Also Known as: Circular Reasoning, Reasoning
in a Circle, Petitio Principii
Description:
Begging the
Question is a fallacy in which the premises include the claim
that the conclusion is true or (directly or indirectly) assume
that the conclusion is true. This sort of “reasoning”
typically has the following form.
1. Premises in which the truth of the conclusion is claimed or
the truth of the conclusion is assumed (either directly or
indirectly).
2. Claim C (the conclusion) is true.
This sort of “reasoning” is fallacious because
simply assuming that the conclusion is true (directly or
indirectly) in the premises does not constitute evidence for that
conclusion. Obviously, simply assuming a claim is true does not
serve as evidence for that claim. This is especially clear in
particularly blatant cases: “X is true. The evidence for
this claim is that X is true.”
Some cases of question begging are fairly blatant, while
others can be extremely subtle.
Example #1:
Bill: “God must exist.”
Jill:
“How do you know.”
Bill: “Because the Bible
says so.”
Jill: “Why should I believe the
Bible?”
Bill: “Because the Bible was written by
God.”
Example #2:
“If such actions were not illegal , then
they would not be prohibited by the law.”
Example #3:
“The belief in God is universal. After
all, everyone believes in God.”
Example #4:
Interviewer: “Your resume looks
impressive but I need another reference.”
Bill: “Jill
can give me a good reference.”
Interviewer: “Good.
But how do I know that Jill is trustworthy?”
Bill:
“Certainly. I can vouch for her.”
Biased
Generalization
Also Known as: Biased Statistics, Loaded
Sample, Prejudiced Statistics, Prejudiced Sample, Loaded
Statistics, Biased Induction, Biased
Generalization
Description:
This fallacy is committed when
a person draws a conclusion about a population based on a sample
that is biased or prejudiced in some manner. It has the following
form:
1. Sample S, which is biased, is taken from population P.
2.
Conclusion C is drawn about Population P based on S.
The person committing the fallacy is misusing the following
type of reasoning, which is known variously as Inductive
Generalization, Generalization, and Statistical Generalization:
1. X% of all observed A’s are B’s.
2. Therefore
X% of all A’s are B’s.
The fallacy is committed when the sample of A’s is
likely to be biased in some manner. A sample is biased or loaded
when the method used to take the sample is likely to result in a
sample that does not adequately represent the population from
which it is drawn.
Biased samples are generally not very reliable. As a blatant
case, imagine that a person is taking a sample from a truckload
of small colored balls, some of which are metal and some of which
are plastic. If he used a magnet to select his sample, then his
sample would include a disproportionate number of metal balls
(after all, the sample will probably be made up entirely of the
metal balls). In this case, any conclusions he might draw about
the whole population of balls would be unreliable since he would
have few or no plastic balls in the sample.
The general idea is that biased samples are less likely to
contain numbers proportional to the whole population. For
example, if a person wants to find out what most Americans
thought about gun control, a poll taken at an NRA meeting would
be a biased sample.
Since the Biased Sample fallacy is
committed when the sample (the observed instances) is biased or
loaded, it is important to have samples that are not biased
making a generalization. The best way to do this is to take
samples in ways that avoid bias. There are, in general, three
types of samples that are aimed at avoiding bias. The general
idea is that these methods (when used properly) will result in a
sample that matches the whole population fairly closely. The
three types of samples are as follows
Random Sample: This is a
sample that is taken in such a way that nothing but chance
determines which members of the population are selected for the
sample. Ideally, any individual member of the population has the
same chance as being selected as any other. This type of sample
avoids being biased because a biased sample is one that is taken
in such a way that some members of the population have a
significantly greater chance of being selected for the sample
than other members. Unfortunately, creating an ideal random
sample is often very difficult.
Stratified Sample: This is a sample that is taken by using the
following steps: 1) The relevant strata (population subgroups)
are identified, 2) The number of members in each stratum is
determined and 3) A random sample is taken from each stratum in
exact proportion to its size. This method is obviously most
useful when dealing with stratified populations. For example, a
person’s income often influences how she votes, so when
conducting a presidential poll it would be a good idea to take a
stratified sample using economic classes as the basis for
determining the strata. This method avoids loaded samples by
(ideally) ensuring that each stratum of the population is
adequately represented.
Time Lapse Sample: This type of sample is taken by taking a
stratified or random sample and then taking at least one more
sample with a significant lapse of time between them. After the
two samples are taken, they can be compared for changes. This
method of sample taking is very important when making
predictions. A prediction based on only one sample is likely to
be a Hasty Generalization (because the sample is likely to be too
small to cover past, present and future populations) or a Biased
Sample (because the sample will only include instances from one
time period).
People often commit Biased Sample because of bias or
prejudice. For example, a person might intentionally or
unintentionally seek out people or events that support his bias.
As an example, a person who is pushing a particular scientific
theory might tend to gather samples that are biased in favor of
that theory.
People also commonly commit this fallacy because
of laziness or sloppiness. It is very easy to simply take a
sample from what happens to be easily available rather than
taking the time and effort to generate an adequate sample and
draw a justified conclusion.
It is important to keep in mind
that bias is relative to the purpose of the sample. For example,
if Bill wanted to know what NRA members thought about a gun
control law, then taking a sample at a NRA meeting would not be
biased. However, if Bill wanted to determine what Americans in
general thought about the law, then a sample taken at an NRA
meeting would be biased.
Example #1:
Bill is assigned by his editor to determine
what most Americans think about a new law that will place a
federal tax on all modems and computers purchased. The revenues
from the tax will be used to enforce new online decency laws.
Bill, being technically inclined, decides to use an email poll.
In his poll, 95% of those surveyed opposed the tax. Bill was
quite surprised when 65% of all Americans voted for the taxes.
Example #2:
The United Pacifists of America decide to run a
poll to determine what Americans think about guns and gun
control. Jane is assigned the task of setting up the study. To
save mailing costs, she includes the survey form in the group’s
newsletter mailing. She is very pleased to find out that 95% of
those surveyed favor gun control laws and she tells her friends
that the vast majority of Americans favor gun control laws.
Example #3:
Large scale polls were taken in Florida,
California, and Maine and it was found that an average of 55% of
those polled spent at least fourteen days a year near the ocean.
So, it can be safely concluded that 55% of all Americans spend at
least fourteen days near the ocean each year.
Burden of Proof
Also
Known As: Appeal to Ignorance (“Ad
Ignorantiam’)
Description:
Burden of Proof is a
fallacy in which the burden of proof is placed on the wrong side.
Another version occurs when a lack of evidence for side A is
taken to be evidence for side B in cases in which the burden of
proof actually rests on side B. A common name for this is an
Appeal to Ignorance. This sort of reasoning typically has the
following form:
1. Claim X is presented by side A and the burden of proof
actually rests on side B.
2. Side B claims that X is false
because there is no proof for X.
In many situations, one side has the burden of proof resting
on it. This side is obligated to provide evidence for its
position. The claim of the other side, the one that does not bear
the burden of proof, is assumed to be true unless proven
otherwise. The difficulty in such cases is determining which
side, if any, the burden of proof rests on. In many cases,
settling this issue can be a matter of significant debate. In
some cases the burden of proof is set by the situation. For
example, in American law a person is assumed to be innocent until
proven guilty (hence the burden of proof is on the prosecution).
As another example, in debate the burden of proof is placed on
the affirmative team. As a final example, in most cases the
burden of proof rests on those who claim something exists (such
as Bigfoot, psychic powers, universals, and sense data).
Example #1:
Bill: “I think that we should invest more
money in expanding the interstate system.”
Jill: “I
think that would be a bad idea, considering the state of the
treasury.”
Bill: How can anyone be against highway
improvements?”
Example #2:
Bill: “I think that some people have
psychic powers.”
Jill: “What is your proof?”
Bill:
“No one has been able to prove that people do not have
psychic powers.”
Example #3:
“You cannot prove that God does not
exist, so He does.”
Circumstantial Ad
Hominem
Description:
A Circumstantial ad Hominem is
a fallacy in which one attempts to attack a claim by asserting
that the person making the claim is making it simply out of self
interest. In some cases, this fallacy involves substituting an
attack on a person’s circumstances (such as the person’s
religion, political affiliation, ethnic background, etc.). The
fallacy has the following forms:
1. Person A makes claim X.
2. Person B asserts that A makes
claim X because it is in A’s interest to claim X.
3.
Therefore claim X is false.
1. Person A makes claim X.
2. Person B makes an attack on
A’s circumstances.
3. Therefore X is false.
A Circumstantial ad Hominem is a fallacy because a person’s
interests and circumstances have no bearing on the truth or
falsity of the claim being made. While a person’s interests
will provide them with motives to support certain claims, the
claims stand or fall on their own. It is also the case that a
person’s circumstances (religion, political affiliation,
etc.) do not affect the truth or falsity of the claim. This is
made quite clear by the following example: “Bill claims
that 1+1 =2. But he is a Republican, so his claim is
false.”
There are times when it is prudent to suspicious
of a person’s claims, such as when it is evident that the
claims are being biased by the person’s interests. For
example, if a tobacco company representative claims that tobacco
does not cause cancer, it would be prudent to not simply accept
the claim. This is because the person has a motivation to make
the claim, whether it is true or not. However, the mere fact that
the person has a motivation to make the claim does not make it
false. For example, suppose a parent tells her son that sticking
a fork in a light socket would be dangerous. Simply because she
has a motivation to say this obviously does not make her claim
false.
Example #1:
“She asserts that we need more military
spending, but that is false, since she is only saying it because
she is a Republican.”
Example #2:
“I think
that we should reject what Father Jones has to say about the
ethical issues of abortion because he is a Catholic priest. After
all, Father Jones is required to hold such views.”
Example #3:
“Of course the Senator from Maine opposes
a reduction in naval spending. After all, Bath Ironworks, which
produces warships, is in Maine.”
Example #4:
“Bill claims that tax breaks for
corporations increases development. Of course, Bill is the CEO of
a corporation.”
Fallacy of
Composition
Description:
The fallacy of Composition
is committed when a conclusion is drawn about a whole based on
the features of its constituents when, in fact, no justification
provided for the inference. There are actually two types of this
fallacy, both of which are known by the same name (because of the
high degree of similarity).
The first type of fallacy of
Composition arises when a person reasons from the characteristics
of individual members of a class or group to a conclusion
regarding the characteristics of the entire class or group (taken
as a whole). More formally, the “reasoning” would
look something like this.
1. Individual F things have characteristics A, B, C, etc.
2.
Therefore, the (whole) class of F things has characteristics A,
B, C, etc.
This line of reasoning is fallacious because the mere fact
that individuals have certain characteristics does not, in
itself, guarantee that the class (taken as a whole) has those
characteristics.
It is important to note that drawing an
inference about the characteristics of a class based on the
characteristics of its individual members is not always
fallacious. In some cases, sufficient justification can be
provided to warrant the conclusion. For example, it is true that
an individual rich person has more wealth than an individual poor
person. In some nations (such as the US) it is true that the
class of wealthy people has more wealth as a whole than does the
class of poor people. In this case, the evidence used would
warrant the inference and the fallacy of Composition would not be
committed.
The second type of fallacy of Composition is
committed when it is concluded that what is true of the parts of
a whole must be true of the whole without there being adequate
justification for the claim. More formally, the line of
“reasoning” would be as follows:
1. The parts of the whole X have characteristics A, B, C,
etc.
2. Therefore the whole X must have characteristics A, B,
C.
This sort of reasoning is fallacious because it cannot be
inferred that simply because the parts of a complex whole have
(or lack) certain properties that the whole that they are parts
of has those properties. This is especially clear in math: The
numbers 1 and 3 are both odd. 1 and 3 are parts of 4. Therefore,
the number 4 is odd.
It must be noted that reasoning from the
properties of the parts to the properties of the whole is not
always fallacious. If there is justification for the inference
from parts to whole, then the reasoning is not fallacious. For
example, if every part of the human body is made of matter, then
it would not be an error in reasoning to conclude that the whole
human body is made of matter. Similarly, if every part of a
structure is made of brick, there is no fallacy committed when
one concludes that the whole structure is made of brick.
Example #1:
A main battle tank uses more fuel than a car.
Therefore, the main battle tanks use up more of the available
fuel in the world than do all the cars.
Example #2:
A tiger eats more food than a human being.
Therefore, tigers, as a group, eat more food than do all the
humans on the earth.
Example #3:
Atoms are colorless. Cats are made of atoms, so
cats are colorless.
Example #4:
Every player on the team is a superstar and a
great player, so the team is a great team.” This is
fallacious since the superstars might not be able to play
together very well and hence they could be a lousy team.
Example #5:
Each part of the show, from the special effects
to the acting is a masterpiece. So, the whole show is a
masterpiece.” This is fallacious since a show could have
great acting, great special effects and such, yet still fail to
“come together” to make a masterpiece.
Example #6:
Come on, you like beef, potatoes, and green
beans, so you will like this beef, potato, and green been
casserole.” This is fallacious for the same reason that the
following is fallacious: “You like eggs, ice cream, pizza,
cake, fish, jello, chicken, taco sauce, soda, oranges, milk, egg
rolls, and yogurt so you must like this yummy dish made out of
all of them.
Example #7:
Sodium and chlorine are both dangerous to
humans. Therefore any combination of sodium and chlorine will be
dangerous to humans.
Confusing Cause and
Effect
Also Known as: Questionable Cause, Reversing
Causation
Description:
Confusing Cause and Effect is a
fallacy that has the following general form:
1) A and B regularly occur together.
2) Therefore A is the
cause of B.
This fallacy requires that there not be, in fact, a common
cause that actually causes both A and B.
This fallacy is
committed when a person assumes that one event must cause another
just because the events occur together. More formally, this
fallacy involves drawing the conclusion that A is the cause of B
simply because A and B are in regular conjunction (and there is
not a common cause that is actually the cause of A and B). The
mistake being made is that the causal conclusion is being drawn
without adequate justification.
In some cases it will be
evident that the fallacy is being committed. For example, a
person might claim that an illness was caused by a person getting
a fever. In this case, it would be quite clear that the fever was
caused by illness and not the other way around. In other cases,
the fallacy is not always evident. One factor that makes causal
reasoning quite difficult is that it is not always evident what
is the cause and what is the effect. For example, a problem child
might be the cause of the parents being short tempered or the
short temper of the parents might be the cause of the child being
problematic. The difficulty is increased by the fact that some
situations might involve feedback. For example, the parents’
temper might cause the child to become problematic and the
child’s behavior could worsen the parents’ temper. In
such cases it could be rather difficult to sort out what caused
what in the first place.
In order to determine that the
fallacy has been committed, it must be shown that the causal
conclusion has not been adequately supported and that the person
committing the fallacy has confused the actual cause with the
effect. Showing that the fallacy has been committed will
typically involve determining the actual cause and the actual
effect. In some cases, as noted above, this can be quite easy. In
other cases it will be difficult. In some cases, it might be
almost impossible. Another thing that makes causal reasoning
difficult is that people often have very different conceptions of
cause and, in some cases, the issues are clouded by emotions and
ideologies. For example, people often claim violence on TV and in
movies must be censored because it causes people to like
violence. Other people claim that there is violence on TV and in
movies because people like violence. In this case, it is not
obvious what the cause really is and the issue is clouded by the
fact that emotions often run high on this issue.
While causal
reasoning can be difficult, many errors can be avoided with due
care and careful testing procedures. This is due to the fact that
the fallacy arises because the conclusion is drawn without due
care. One way to avoid the fallacy is to pay careful attention to
the temporal sequence of events. Since (outside of Star Trek),
effects do not generally precede their causes, if A occurs after
B, then A cannot be the cause of B. However, these methods go
beyond the scope of this program.
All causal fallacies involve
an error in causal reasoning. However, this fallacy differs from
the other causal fallacies in terms of the error in reasoning
being made. In the case of a Post Hoc fallacy, the error is that
a person is accepting that A is the cause of B simply because A
occurs before B. In the case of the Fallacy of Ignoring a Common
Cause A is taken to be the cause of B when there is, in fact, a
third factor that is the cause of both A and B. For more
information, see the relevant entries in this program.
Example #1:
Bill and Joe are having a debate about music
and moral decay:
Bill: ‘”It seems clear to me that
this new music is causing the youth to become corrupt.”
Joe:
‘What do you mean?”
Bill: “This rap stuff is
always telling the kids to kill cops, do drugs, and abuse women.
That is all bad and the kids today shouldn’t be doing that
sort of stuff. We ought to ban that music!”
Joe: “So,
you think that getting rid of the rap music would solve the drug,
violence and sexism problems in the US?”
Bill: “Well,
it wouldn’t get rid of it all, but it would take care of a
lot of it.”
Joe: “Don’t you think that most
of the rap singers sing about that sort of stuff because that is
what is really going on these days? I mean, people often sing
about the conditions of their time, just like the people did in
the sixties. But then I suppose that you think that people were
against the war and into drugs just because they listened to
Dylan and Baez.”
Bill: “Well…”
Joe:
“Well, it seems to me that the main cause of the content of
the rap music is the pre-existing social conditions. If there
weren’t all these problems, the rap singers probably
wouldn’t be singing about them. I also think that if the
social conditions were great, kids could listen to the music all
day and not be affected.”
Joe: ‘Well, I still
think the rap music causes the problems. You can’t argue
against the fact that social ills really picked up at the same
time rap music got started.”
Example #2:
It is claimed by some people that severe
illness is caused by depression and anger. After all, people who
are severely ill are very often depressed and angry. Thus, it
follows that the cause of severe illness actually is the
depression and anger. So, a good and cheerful attitude is key to
staying healthy.
Example #3:
Bill sets out several plates with bread on
them. After a couple days, he notices that the bread has mold
growing all over it. Bill concludes that the mold was produced by
the bread going bad. When Bill tells his mother about his
experiment, she tells him that the mold was the cause of the
bread going bad and that he better clean up the mess if he wants
to get his allowance this week.
Fallacy of Division
Description:
The fallacy of Division
is committed when a person infers that what is true of a whole
must also be true of its constituents and justification for that
inference is not provided. There are two main variants of the
general fallacy of Division:
The first type of fallacy of
Division is committed when 1) a person reasons that what is true
of the whole must also be true of the parts and 2) the person
fails to justify that inference with the required degree of
evidence. More formally, the “reasoning” follows this
sort of pattern:
1. The whole, X, has properties A, B, C, etc.
2. Therefore
the parts of X have properties A,B,C, etc.
That this line of reasoning is fallacious is made clear by the
following case: 4 is an even number. 1 and 3 are parts of 4.
Therefore 1 and 3 are even.
It should be noted that it is not
always fallacious to draw a conclusion about the parts of a whole
based on the properties of the whole. As long as adequate
evidence is provided in the argument, the reasoning can be
acceptable. For example, the human body is made out of matter and
it is reasonable to infer from this that the parts that make up
the human body are also made out of matter. This is because there
is no reason to believe that the body is made up of non-material
parts that somehow form matter when they get together.
The
second version of the fallacy of division is committed when a
person 1) draws a conclusion about the properties of individual
members of a class or group based on the collective properties of
the class or group and 2) there is not enough justification for
the conclusion. More formally, the line of “reasoning”
is as follows:
1. As a collective, group or class X has properties A,B,C,
etc.
2. Therefore the individual members of group or class X
have properties A,B,C, etc.
That this sort of reasoning is fallacious can be easily shown
by the following: It is true that athletes, taken as a group, are
football players, track runners, swimmers, tennis players, long
jumpers, pole vaulters and such. But it w | 
